Nalanda University: The Long Forgotten Temple Of Knowledge

For a very long time, Ancient India had supreme importance in the intellectual matrix, for erudite scholars had espoused theories vividly on science and philosophy. India had been a harbinger of epistemology since Vedic times. One must cast doubt that her intellectual versatility precedes Vedic times but there is scant evidence on knowledge in the proto-Historic age. Nonetheless, the knowledge which has been conceived orally was put down in pen in the opening centuries of the Christian era. Right from the beginning of the Vedic epoch, religion and philosophy have had a profound impact on man and his actions. Venerable sages were at meditation that brings forth Innumerable wisdom on epistemology. We are rather astonished at how the knowledge system had transformed into a religion. We must bear in mind that, everything including history has transitioned from simple to complex. When religions founded on scientific philosophies ushered in, rulers, wealthy merchants and local chieftains take up to propagate them, some of them drifted away from pure knowledge but on the other hand, secular knowledge made inroads to the basic tenets and produced astounding feats in epistemology. Likewise, Nalanda University is the manifestation of changes that happened in the structure of philosophy. Buddhism, especially, Mahayana Buddhism flourished on the support of kings. The Mahayana sect had produced a copious amount of literature which enriched the academic syllabus of the University. A university exists in the literature. Here literature implies treatises on various branches of knowledge. Before we dive into the history of Nalanda, it is pertinent to understand what we meant by the term university in the early medieval age. Firstly, it is important to fully understand the context in which the term university is used. This brings us to the work of Cardinal John Henry Newman(1801-1890), an English Cleric, who had produced a treatise on how a University ought to be. He perceived University as the manifestation of morality. The chief purpose of such an institution is to cultivate good habits and should have a profound impact on the behaviour of the pupil. He weighs more on the primacy of religion. To define, a University is a body of scholastic people and hold out an invitation to the student who possesses requisite knowledge. Lastly, he asserted the importance of secular education as arts and science are stemmed from religion. It pervades over various disciplines of Knowledge. He adduced that theology, which is distinct from religion ought to be included in the curriculum as it is the science of God that places reason over emotion. Nalanda befits aforesaid qualities. It is chiefly philosophical at a certain point of time and in due course of time religious. On the strength of Cardinal Newman's proposition, we can infer that Nalanda University is entrenched in Religion, the primacy of theology and so forth. It is imperative to mention that the existence of multifarious subjects makes a learning Centre a University.

Origin &Etymology

Nalanda, once considered as the abode of learning, is located in present-day Bihar, one of the states in India. Several accounts give us information on the etymology of the place. In this regard, Hiuen -Tsiang, a Chinese traveller and a student of Jayadeva, the Pandit at Nalanda University. He stated that Nalanda had been named after a snake who dwelt in the tank by the Mango grove. Conversely, another account subscribes to the fact that Nalanda is derived from the word "Na-Alam-datum" which signifies: It is sufficient to give. This account is attributed to the benevolence of King Thattagatha. Another account testifies wrath and impending havoc wrought by intruders. It describes that king Sakraditya purported to be Kumaragupta, a Gupta King, built a monastery but unknowingly wounded the snake that goes by the name Nalanda. Harming a serpent is considered an omen. The soothsayer prophesied that the place will flourish as a Learning Centre for a thousand years but it will be destroyed at the hands of Intruders. We are not sure whether these statements are valid or not. Ostensibly, the etymology and origin of Nalanda are shrouded in mystery.

From Sangharama to the University

It is pertinent to note that the evolution of Nalanda as the University should be understood in the Buddhist matrix. It is quite certain that Nalanda University has been evolved from the Sangharama or Monastery. Sangharama, in Sanskrit, literally means Resting place. The idea of monachism predates the lifetime of Gautama Buddha. It is derived from Hinduism as sage denounced their worldly life and turned to spirituality. At the nascent stage of Buddhism, Lord Buddhism never encouraged his followers to lodge somewhere as they were pessimistic about life. They wander from place to place. Sometimes they dwelt at the foot of the tree, on hillsides or in the forest. They embraced monachism for the sole purpose of the attainment of nirvana. They might have been inspired by the Thittya School of Monachism. The Buddhist Mendicants during the monsoon sought refuge in caves or abodes of wealthy merchants. Their stay during the monsoon is called 'Vassa'. There is a legend associated with vassa. During the monsoon, Boddhisatvs(Buddhist monks) roamed across the region in search of food, they plucked small plants and disrupted small creatures. This was a heinous crime and violated one of the cardinal tenets of Buddhism. Lord Buddha, worried about their actions, instructed them to stay during the monsoon. Hence began vassa. During Vassa, they lived in the cave or resorted to Hospice sponsored by the king or wealthy merchants. Gradually their temporary residence had been evolved into Viharas, where they meditate, chant dhamma and attain Nirvana. The chief purpose of Viharas, As Lord Buddha puts it:

" To give Viharas to the Sangha(Association of Buddhist Monks), where, in safety and in peace , to meditate and think at ease, they are the best of gifts"

As to the sponsor he says:

"Let then, the able man, regarding his own weal, have pleasant monasteries built, and lodge their learned men"

Mahavagga and Cullavagga ( Buddhist texts) refer to the splendour of Buddhist Viharas. They have all sorts of paraphernalia: Verandah covered terrace, inner verandah, embellished with furniture, chair, mat and stool. Walls of viharas were made of brick, stone and cement. Sometimes learned men stay at Viharas. We can presume that it is from the secular knowledge that emerged At Viharas, the monk had to perform certain functions. They met on specific days of the month to recite dhammas. They performed uposatha ceremonies where they purify themselves. Moreover, they assembled at the monastery to admit guilt. Gradually, there arises the need for a person who presides these ceremonies so, the fraternity elected one of the members as the president. The official acts termed as 'Sanghakamma' were carried out with the help of four monks. As mentioned earlier, the surge of secular education changed the fundamental principles of Buddhism. The revival of Buddhism had transformed viharas into learning centres. It is worth noting to bear in mind that Nalanda University is the product of Mahayana Buddhism, for pandits like Silabhadra, Dharmapala and Jayadeva were considered to be patriarchs of Mahayana Buddhism. Chaityas were erected not only at Nalanda but sculpted rock-cut caves at Ellora, Kanheri and Ajantha. These were constructed with the help of the kings and wealthy merchants for their names were inscribed on the viharas. People from distant lands came to learn from ingenious priests or Monks. The students are referred to as Brahmacarins. Gradually, there is a drift like sangharamas. Now it's purely academic and the predominance of Nirvana and meditation withered away. Various disciplines of Epistemology were produced by the learned men of Mahayana Buddhism, they gave rise to various Schools and culminated in the formation of the University.

Curriculum

A University exists on how much epistemological literature had been produced. Students are attracted to education primarily on their affinity towards any system of knowledge. Thus it should be recorded to disseminate. Modern Universities produce pieces of literature for pecuniary needs. Modern students are into professions that demand wealth. By contrast, Students of the ancient age are intrigued by the ingenuity of a certain epistemological discipline. The Indian knowledge system is deeply entrenched in philosophy. The ancients are driven by an insatiable thirst for understanding the truth. Learned men, in their quest to find the truth, espoused various mediums to perceive it. Their intellectual pursuit is manifested in the form of logic, astronomy, exegetics, reasoning and so on. The intellectual mooring of Nalanda University falls back upon Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism had a sonorous impact on Indian epistemology. The Vedas, Vedantas, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaishesikas enriched the edifice of knowledge. They indeed influenced the Mahayana branch of Buddhism to a larger extent. For instance, Hindu Nyaya had given rise to Hetuvidya(The science of reasoning) in Buddhism. Several epistemological branches come under Hindu tradition. Hasmukh Dirajlal Sankalia(1908-1989), an Indian Historian and a celebrated Archaeologist identified major landmarks in Indian epistemology. The age of Panini and The age of Mahayana Buddhism. The former precedes the time of Buddha. Various knowledge systems that flourished in the lifetime of Panini can be subsumed under the head of the Hindu tradition. Let's chime in on the various knowledge systems before Gautama Buddha. Panini, also known as Ahita Panini is a venerable grammarian who lived in the seventh century BC, his incredible niche in classical languages and logic contributed to a treatise entitled Ashtadhyayi( Eight chapters), probably the first book on grammar. In the seventh century before Christ Vedas, Vedangas viz; Jyothisa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Siksha; and twenty-six epistemological systems including Kshatra-vidya(The science of Bow) and vakovakyam(The science of disputation) were studied. They were predominant during Gautama Buddha's lifetime. Besides them, Nyaya, Vaishesikas and Samkhya deserve mention. Samkhya was espoused by Kapila as a scientific investigation on the creation and origin of the universe. The Universe owes its origin to the Prakriti. Prakriti signifies nature. In the beginning, nature was static so was its elements viz; Thamas(The matter), Rajas(Energy) and Sattva(Energy). At a certain point in time, three elements became unstable, change happened in them. Every life form happens due to the combination of these elements. He recognized the existence of spirit( Purusha) which is different in every individual. This brings us to the notion of duality. This had a profound impact on the principles of Shri Shankaracharya even though he assailed it and It had a deep impact on Buddhism as well.

Another essential theory of knowledge is Logic. It is postulated by Gotama or widely known by the name Aksapada. It seeks to identify the truth based on the argument of the premise(statement) by the process of dialectics. If we make a statement in thought, it will be inference. Subsequently, by thoroughly validating the inference and argument of a statement conclusion is arrived at. This is how logic is expounded. In due course of time, the Logic was subject to change. In Buddhist epistemology, logic was more technical rather than religious. Dinnaga, the greatest Buddhist logician gives more importance to the Hetu or linga also known as the Middle part of an Inference. He has produced countless treatises on logic which attracted students and elders alike. Similarly, Vaishesikas is on equal foot with Samkhya and Nyaya. In antagonism with the Samkhya philosophy, vaishesikas laid out the proposition that all substance formed by the atom, which is indivisible, is put into motion by God. Moreover, it emphasizes reality as it advocates entities felt and experienced by humans, For instance, the sky, ether and fire are perceptible. It is well connected to Nyaya and therefore a combination of both is flourished in the medieval era by the name Nyaya-Vaishesikas. This theory is postulated by Kanada in the opening century of the Christian era. The Yoga philosophy, espoused by Kanada in the second century BC, is geared towards Theism, despite its affinity towards Nyaya. It seeks salvation in the end. Literally, Yoga in Sanskrit means 'Union' by samadhi. We are corrupted by the material world created by Prakriti, which is nature. Salvation is the ultimate path to reach the omnipotent therefore, yoga is the medium to get there. Despite the spiritual side, it teaches asanas or physical exercise and Pranayama which is breath control.

These epistemological systems were taught at learning institutions before Gautama Buddha. They, indeed, had a profound impact on Mahayana Buddhism. As we get through the Buddhist epistemology, a lot of changes happened within Buddhist tenets. Let us have a rapid survey on this. Buddhism as a religion is apparently a far cry from the pure form of Buddhism. The pure form of Buddhism embraced self-denial and had a rather pessimistic outlook. The revival in Buddhism takes place in the early centuries of the Christian era. The emergence of Madhyamika Philosophy espoused by Nagarjuna gave rise to Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism in the Christian era had been splintered into two, viz; The Mahayana and The Hinayana. The former stressed the significance of idealism, the resultant of which is the emergence of celestial Gods and Demons. It is darn ritualistic and embraced Sunyavada. While the latter subscribed to the idea of Puritanism and affirms individual salvation. Driven by the Hindu tradition, Buddhism in later stages produced innumerable works on Logic, Truth, Dialectics and so forth. It is worth noting to mention the patriarchs of Mahayana tradition, in this respect. Nagarjuna, the venerated Patriarch, penned the work entitled Dasa- bhumi-vibhasa- sastra wherein he refuted Brahmanical philosophy. Aryadeva, the celebrated student of Nagarjuna, had a scathing attack on Samkhya and Vaishesikas in his magnum opus, Satasastra(Some regards Nagarjuna as the Author of the text). Logic has a prominent place in Buddhist Philosophy. The real founders of medieval logic Buddhists. Dinnaga is considered to be the first systematic author of Buddhist logic. In Buddhism, cause or Hetu is of supreme importance. Dignaga had written a treatise on the importance of Hetu. Thus under the aegis of Mahayana Buddhism extant epistemological topics are revamped and they are taught at Nalanda University.

It is important to have a survey on topics taught at Nalanda. The university had a wide array of subjects and studying them was exhaustive as well. Before he seeks admission to the university, he ought to be well adept in Vedas, Nyaya, Samkhya and other knowledge systems. Travelogues of Hiuen -Tsiang and I -Tsing informs us on the multidisciplinary curriculum at the University. The curriculum of Nalanda was exhaustive and embraced many of the subjects of pre-Nalanda times(Sankalia,1934 p.67). Of various subjects, certain topics deserve mention. They are compulsorily taught at the university. It has been already mentioned that Nalanda University embraced Mahayana Buddhism. In this ambit, it is pertinent to mention the significance of Theology. Theology is attributed to science for it is the scientific study of God. In western conception, the sole purpose of theology is to place reason above emotion. There is reason to believe in something. Likewise, Mahayana Buddhism professed the belief in Ideas and at the same time Nihilism. Hence, there are two cardinal tenets of Mahayana Buddhism viz; 'Sunyavada' and 'Vijanavada'. It is fascinating to understand that both schools refuted the existence of reality. As to Sunyavada, it denies the existence of an object for everything evolves, subject to change. This is espoused by Nagarjuna and hence regarded as the kernel element of the Mahayana. By contrast, Hinayana Buddhism, grappled with the notion of existence which is explained in philosophy called 'Sravakayana'. The latter(Vijanavada) teaches the significance of Idealism. These bring us to the teaching of Dharmapala, a venerated scholar at the Nalanda University. Dharmapala expounded on the theory of 'Sky-Flower'. The Sky- Flower conception is neither a Nihilist concept nor an idealist notion. The theory describes in the following manner:

A University exists on how much epistemological literature had been produced. Students are attracted to education primarily on their affinity towards any system of knowledge. Thus it should be recorded to disseminate. Modern Universities produce pieces of literature for pecuniary needs. Modern students are into professions that demand wealth. By contrast, Students of the ancient age are intrigued by the ingenuity of a certain epistemological discipline. The Indian knowledge system is deeply entrenched in philosophy. The ancients are driven by an insatiable thirst for understanding the truth. Learned men, in their quest to find the truth, espoused various mediums to perceive it. Their intellectual pursuit is manifested in the form of logic, astronomy, exegetics, reasoning and so on. The intellectual mooring of Nalanda University falls back upon Hinduism and Buddhism. Hinduism had a sonorous impact on Indian epistemology. The Vedas, Vedantas, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaishesikas enriched the edifice of knowledge. They indeed influenced the Mahayana branch of Buddhism to a larger extent. For instance, Hindu Nyaya had given rise to Hetuvidya(The science of reasoning) in Buddhism. Several epistemological branches come under Hindu tradition. Hasmukh Dirajlal Sankalia(1908-1989), an Indian Historian and a celebrated Archaeologist identified major landmarks in Indian epistemology. The age of Panini and The age of Mahayana Buddhism. The former precedes the time of Buddha. Various knowledge systems that flourished in the lifetime of Panini can be subsumed under the head of the Hindu tradition. Let's chime in on the various knowledge systems before Gautama Buddha. Panini, also known as Ahita Panini is a venerable grammarian who lived in the seventh century BC, his incredible niche in classical languages and logic contributed to a treatise entitled Ashtadhyayi( Eight chapters), probably the first book on grammar. In the seventh century before Christ Vedas, Vedangas viz; Jyothisa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Kalpa and Siksha; and twenty-six epistemological systems including Kshatra-vidya(The science of Bow) and vakovakyam(The science of disputation) were studied. They were predominant during Gautama Buddha's lifetime. Besides them, Nyaya, Vaishesikas and Samkhya deserve mention. Samkhya was espoused by Kapila as a scientific investigation on the creation and origin of the universe. The Universe owes its origin to the Prakriti. Prakriti signifies nature. In the beginning, nature was static so was its elements viz; Thamas(The matter), Rajas(Energy) and Sattva(Energy). At a certain point in time, three elements became unstable, change happened in them. Every life form happens due to the combination of these elements. He recognized the existence of spirit( Purusha) which is different in every individual. This brings us to the notion of duality. This had a profound impact on the principles of Shri Shankaracharya even though he assailed it and It had a deep impact on Buddhism as well.

Another essential theory of knowledge is Logic. It is postulated by Gotama or widely known by the name Aksapada. It seeks to identify the truth based on the argument of the premise(statement) by the process of dialectics. If we make a statement in thought, it will be inference. Subsequently, by thoroughly validating the inference and argument of a statement conclusion is arrived at. This is how logic is expounded. In due course of time, the Logic was subject to change. In Buddhist epistemology, logic was more technical rather than religious. Dinnaga, the greatest Buddhist logician gives more importance to the Hetu or Linga also known as the Middle part of an Inference. He has produced countless treatises on logic which attracted students and elders alike. Similarly, Vaishesikas is on equal foot with Samkhya and Nyaya. In antagonism with the Samkhya philosophy, vaishesikas laid out the proposition that all substance formed by the atom, which is indivisible, is put into motion by God. Moreover, it emphasizes reality as it advocates entities felt and experienced by humans, For instance, the sky, ether and fire are perceptible. It is well connected to Nyaya and therefore a combination of both is flourished in the medieval era by the name Nyaya-Vaishesikas. This theory is postulated by Kanada in the opening century of the Christian era. The Yoga philosophy, espoused by Kanada in the second century BC, is geared towards Theism, despite its affinity towards Nyaya. It seeks salvation in the end. Literally, Yoga in Sanskrit means 'Union' by samadhi. We are corrupted by the material world created by Prakriti, which is nature. Salvation is the ultimate path to reach the omnipotent therefore, yoga is the medium to get there. Despite the spiritual side, it teaches asanas or physical exercise and Pranayama which is breath control.

These epistemological systems were taught at learning institutions before Gautama Buddha. They, indeed, had a profound impact on Mahayana Buddhism. As we get through the Buddhist epistemology, a lot of changes happened within Buddhist tenets. Let us have a rapid survey on this. Buddhism as a religion is apparently a far cry from the pure form of Buddhism. The pure form of Buddhism embraced self-denial and had a rather pessimistic outlook. The revival in Buddhism takes place in the early centuries of the Christian era. The emergence of Madhyamika Philosophy espoused by Nagarjuna gave rise to Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism in the Christian era had been splintered into two, viz; The Mahayana and The Hinayana. The former stressed the significance of idealism, the resultant of which is the emergence of celestial Gods and Demons. It is darn ritualistic and embraced Sunyavada. While the latter subscribed to the idea of Puritanism and affirms individual salvation. Driven by the Hindu tradition, Buddhism in later stages produced innumerable works on Logic, Truth, Dialectics and so forth. It is worth noting to mention the patriarchs of Mahayana tradition, in this respect. Nagarjuna, the venerated Patriarch, penned the work entitled Dasa- bhumi-vibhasa- shastra wherein he refuted Brahmanical philosophy. Aryadeva, the celebrated student of Nagarjuna, had a scathing attack on Samkhya and Vaishesikas in his magnum opus, Satasastra(Some regards Nagarjuna as the Author of the text). Logic has a prominent place in Buddhist Philosophy. The real founders of medieval logic Buddhists. Dinnaga is considered to be the first systematic author of Buddhist logic. In Buddhism, cause or Hetu is of supreme importance. Dignaga had written a treatise on the importance of Hetu. Thus under the aegis of Mahayana Buddhism extant epistemological topics are revamped and they are taught at Nalanda University.

It is important to have a survey on topics taught at Nalanda. The university had a wide array of subjects and was exhaustive as well. Before he seeks admission to the university, he ought to be well adept in Vedas, Nyaya, Samkhya and other knowledge systems. Travelogues of Hiuen -Tsiang and I -Tsing informs us on the multidisciplinary curriculum at the University. The curriculum of Nalanda was exhaustive and embraced many of the subjects of pre-Nalanda times(Sankalia,1934 p.67). Of various subjects, certain topics deserve mention. They are compulsorily taught at the university. It has been already mentioned that Nalanda University embraced Mahayana Buddhism. In this ambit, it is pertinent to mention the significance of Theology. Theology is attributed to science for it is the scientific study of God. In western conception, the sole purpose of theology is to place reason above emotion. There is reason to believe in something. Likewise, Mahayana Buddhism professed the belief in Ideas and at the same time Nihilism. Hence, there are two cardinal tenets of Mahayana Buddhism viz; 'Sunyavada' and 'Vijanavada'. It is fascinating to understand that both schools refuted the existence of reality. As to Sunyavada, it denies the existence of an object for everything evolves, subject to change. This is espoused by Nagarjuna and hence regarded as the kernel element of the Mahayana. By contrast, Hinayana Buddhism, grappled with the notion of existence which is explained in philosophy called 'Sravakayana'. The latter(Vijanavada) teaches the significance of Idealism. These bring us to the teaching of Dharmapala, a venerated scholar at the Nalanda University. Dharmapala expounded on the theory of 'Sky-Flower'. The Sky- Flower conception is neither a Nihilist concept nor an idealist notion. The theory describes in the following manner:

It is mentioned in the surangamasutra, a treatise on Mahayana teachings, penned by Dharmapala. The work was later translated into Chinese around 705 AD. Likewise, many works of Nagarjuna are translated into Chinese. The Sanskrit versions of the Mahayana treatise are scant. It is evident from the Sky- Flower doctrine that it runs down the reality. This led us to believe in the Void otherwise known as Sunyata. It may be presumed from the doctrine that it subscribes to idealism. Nonetheless, as an Idea exists, God exists. Furthermore, the predominance of the idea gives rise to religion and worship. It rejects Hinayana and considers them as Heretics, so as the Hinayana as well. They are at odds in so far as much verbal spat happens between them. The Mahayana has a different conception of salvation. In their opinion, they asserted that Nirvana is meant for all. It is indeed a paradigm shift from the individualism of Hinayana Buddhism. They deprecated Hinayana Buddhism as pessimistic and requires strenuous meditation to attain nirvana. This approach is seen in Sthiramati's 'Mahayanabhidharmasamyukta-Sangiti-sastra wherein he condemns Hinayana as lower, debased while Mahayana Buddhism suffices pleasure for all beings, wealth and fortune. Another important canon of Mahayana Theology is 'Siksha- Samuccaya' of Santideva. In this particular piece of work, he argued that Hinayana practices are indeed dull and are of no use. True enlightenment comes from Mahayana Buddhism. He adduced that worldly pronouncement never shows us a purpose. This is a far cry from the teachings of Buddha. Mindfulness and devotion are requisites to attain success He opined that enlightenment is achieved by the fixation on one's faith. One ought to have unflagging energy and mindfulness so that one can train to perfection

Tibetan rendering of Nagarjuna after "Nagarjuna (left), Buton Rinpoche (right), Folio from a Dharani (Protective or Empowering Spells) LACMA M.81.9.1" by Fæ is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Another subject that was endorsed at the Nalanda University is Logic. In the Buddhist Knowledge matrix, it is called Hetu by name. Hetu is the science of reasoning and cause. Sometimes, it is known as the Middle- Term. The inference has various elements viz; The major, Minor and Hetu. Hetu is central to the proposition. Logic is inevitable for disputing and refuting fact and ultimately, identifying the truth. Students at Nalanda use logic in exegetics and debates related to philosophy. Various philosophies viz; the Samkhya, vaishesikas and Nyaya are indeed connected to logic. One can accept, validate or turn down the philosophy with help of logic. It is imperative to review the contribution of Dinnaga otherwise known as Dignaga to logic. Buddhist logic which is apparently distinct from Nyaya denies upanayana and Anumana(Inference) it accepts the suzerainty of the Middle-Term. Another significant fact is the nature of logic. Dinnaga's conception of logic is stemmed from the notion of platonic idealism. This is best expressed in the following way:

"Sarvoyam anumananumeyavyavaharo buddhyarudhenaiva dharma-dharmibhavena na bahisadasattvam apksate"

Another logician who made considerable improvement in Hetu is Dharmakirti. He advanced Trairupya theory of Inference and set out certain principles concerning the middle term. He said that the middle- term has to abide by the minor term. It should be corroborated with the Major term if the major term is similar to the idea of the middle -term and lastly, under heterogeneous conditions, the Major-term and minor term never go hand-in-hand. Also, he stated that the middle term is of three kinds viz: Identity, effect and Non-perception. With help of these, a conclusion is arrived at. The study Logic especially Hetuvidya helps the student to critique, refute and espouse epistemological theories.

Dignaga, also known as Dinnaga accorded importance to the middle- term. He espoused Trairupia

The students of the Nalanda university honed their skills at critique. Moreover, the university is known for producing vast literature comprising philosophical theories. Philosophies postulated by various philosophers were compiled and these works constitute the Encyclopedia. One of the prominent corpora of such work is the Thattvasangraha, compiled by Santarakshita. Panjika the commentary on Thattvasangraha, was penned by his student Kamalasila. Santarakshita is a famed critic as well. He refuted popular philosophies of the time and asserted his opinion. One of the prominent critiques is his take on sathyakaryavada which refutes the Samkhya philosophy wherein he asserts that the object is non-existent. The Samkhya asserted that effect is existent in the cause. Hence it's predetermined. While Santarakshita on the other hand refutes by saying that if something is non-existent how could it produce something new. For explanation, he cited the example of milk and curd. Curd is the effect whereas Milk is the cause. Assume that curd is absent in the milk, how can milk be produced? To Buddhists, denial of reality is important. Only ideas persist. Astronomy needs an honourable mention. Accounts of Hiuen-Tsiang and his biographer, I-Tsing inform us about the existence of an Astronomical observatory that could have a water -clock which gave accurate time for Magadha.

The process of admission to Nalanda is indeed a tedious one. Before the entrance, he ought to have a piece of requisite knowledge on Grammar and other philosophical topics. For this purpose, Gatekeepers were appointed. They are men of wisdom and possess incredible knowledge. The examination is in the form of discussions where the gatekeeper poses questions to the student. Those questions were difficult to answer. Only a few students overcame such puzzling questions. This system of entrance examination was held out to foreigners. Students of the Buddhist faith otherwise known as Bhikkhus were exempted, for they completed their formal education at Nalanda. The non-Buddhist students were known as Brahmacarin while Buddhist students were called Bhikkhus. Upon their entrance, especially students who hailed from foreign lands, officials of the Nalanda University welcomed them with much grandeur. Hiuen-Tsiang, in his account, said that he was accompanied by the learned men of Nalanda upon his arrival. The chief purpose of education is the acquisition of knowledge. By contrast, Modern Education prepares students to live by the pittance of vocation. Students in the ancient age on the other hand wanted to know the actual knowledge which is metaphysical. For Buddhists, the attainment of Nirvana is essential likewise, Hindus ultimately seek Brahma. In the nascent stages, these objectives persisted but gradually faded and were substituted by emoluments and positions chiefly pecuniary in nature.

How did the student of Nalanda subsist? During their sojourn at Nalanda, they have to develop certain habits. Firstly, they ought to be subservient to the teachers. They accompanied teachers in alms, thereby receiving food and provisions for their subsistence. Moreover, they have to pay for the food provided by the households of hundred villages that come under the periphery of Nalanda. Furthermore, they perform household activities for their masters. It is pertinent to note the student-teacher relationship. It symbolizes servility to each other. Buddha has precisely laid down the duties of the student and his Master. A student is expected to nurse his master, help him in all the ceremonies and practices of the first hours of the day, wash utensils, sweep the vihara, persuade his master to ward off ill faith and helps him to reaffirm his faith and so forth. While the master in turn has to nurse his student. to observe strict conduct towards his pupil and so on.

As to the dietary requirements, there are three courses. They eat breakfast after serving meals to their master. Instead of tea, he consumed rice-water. Lunch was served in the forenoon. At this time, he consumed fruits, butter, milk and sweet melons. In the evening around seven o clock, they consumed meals. They lead quite a rigorous life. In terms of their diet, they were not served splendid meals nor provided for free of cost. They have to buy meals for themselves and their master as Buddhism propagates to lead an austere life devoid of material pursuits. Discipline is non-negotiable. Students held high regard for their master. Neither they denied his commands nor he conflicted with him. If any kind of malpractice is found, he will be expelled from the University. This is the highest method of punishment. They never encouraged corporal punishment indeed. Sometimes, students have to make penance for their ill-manner. Rules and regulations on discipline and morality are stipulated in the Vinaya Pitaka. Another worthwhile piece of information concerning campus life is the dress code. The students have to follow a uniform dress code. This applies to Bhikkhus and Hindu students. They put on robes that are wrapped around his waist. The material used to prepare the robe was either silk or wool. Besides this, they put on garments made of linen, cotton and hemp. Three kinds of robes are specified for the students to put on, they are Double waistcloth, a single upper robe and a single undergarment. While pandits wore caps that have pointed peaks and elongated lappets

Pious in Demeanour, Buddhist students ' attire © SantiPhotoSS/Shutterstock.com

They had complete abstinence from games. Games from the Buddhist perspective is considered to be vice, however, in due course of time, they drifted from absolute puritanism and focused on worldly pleasures. They engaged in gambling as it was prominent in ancient India. Moreover, they find solace in dancing, swordsmanship, carriage driving, guessing at measures, hopping over diagrams and so on. Moreover, they had to refrain from sexual relationships. As Prof Sankalia rightly puts in:

"Whenever a women entered a monastery she was not allowed to proceed to the apartments of either priests of students. She could speak to them in a corridor and go away"

Thereby in this manner, they kept off carnal desires and preserved spiritual purity. If such desire pops up it is the duty of his ward(student) to convince him and reaffirm his faith. Students had to abstain from such impure thoughts, if he harnesses them they will be expelled from their order.

PANDITS: THE EDIFICE OF THE LEARNING CENTRE

As the title suggests, scholars otherwise known as pandits are truly the very edifice of the temple of knowledge for, they are well adept in sastras, sutras and other epistemological branches. They have proven their theories, most of the theories are expounded by themselves. Nalanda university is known for its versatile scholars, chiefly Buddhist scholars. Their knowledge, sheer radiance had found profundity in Japan, China, Tibet and Korea. The Tibetan Lamaism owes its origin to Indian Vajrayana Buddhism. A copious amount of Buddhist literature in China is a mere translation of Indian Buddhist literature. For instance, the works of Nagarjuna, the patriarch of Mahayana Buddhism were almost translated into Chinese. Any of his works written in Sanskrit had not been retrieved so far as they are presumed to be lost. Fortunately, a work in Sanskrit attributed to Nagarjuna has been discovered by a Russian many years ago. However, Mahayana Buddhism wielded its influence over India and some regions in South East Asia for a thousand years. Let us take a quick survey of the eminent Pandits of Nalanda University.

Many scholars had advanced Mahayana Buddhism. Some are proponents of Tantric Buddhism indeed. We will look at their works and what they have been known for. Firstly, it is imperative to mention Dignaga(Some sources mentions him as either Jina or Dinnaga). He was the master logician who refuted the significance of inference. He asserted that cause or reason is the nub of a statement(Hetu). He espoused Trairupya. He lives around about in AD 400. He penned 100 dialectical sastras and preached Abhidhamma as well. His philosophy is popular in Japan. Chandrakirti who carries the epithet 'The great master of Masters' composed commentaries on Madhyamikavara, a treatise on Mahayana principle. Some sources inform us that the Bappapada Vihara at Vallabhi was built by Sthiramati, one of the venerated pandits of Nalanda. He was well known in Tibet as well. He has penned Sri Buddha kapala Maha Tantra raja tika Abhaya Padhatinama and Sadanga Yoga. It is imperative to note that these sages had been wrangling over topics about Nyaya and vaishesikas for many years. For instance, Dharmakirti, a venerated Buddhist Philosopher from Nalanda has a verbal spat with Shri Shankaracharya where Shankaracharya outsmarts him and affirmed his thesis of Duality. Santarakshita, who had developed his own stamp of intelligence, erected a monastery around 749 AD in Tibet. He was the first Pandit to pay a visit to Tibet at the instance of King Khri-Son-Den-Tsan. Most of the scholars are of aristocratic origin, who later renounced Material ambitions and followed the path of Buddha. Santideva, who is believed to be the son of King Manjuvarman, choose Buddhism over stately life. Legends inform us that he turned to Buddhism at the instance of his mother. He obtained the knowledge of Manjushree. He penned Sutra Samuccaya, Siksa Samuccaya and BodhiCaryavarta. The abbots, who see into the academic affairs, expounded and improvised existing theories. Subhadra, who was the abbot of Nalanda University, was of royal origin. He was the son of a certain king in East- India. He earned the title " Pater Familias" of the Buddhist community, who is the eldest monk at the University. He had penned Arya Buddha Bhumi Vyakhyana. Hiuen -Tsiang, the Chinese traveller and a student at Nalanda, sojourned during the tenure of Silabhadra who recommended Jayasena to teach Hiuen -Tsiang Yoga. Tibet is so thankful to Padmasambhava, a Nalanda Buddhist, who founded Lamaism in Tibet, hailed from the country Udyana, which is purported to be the state of Odisha in India. He was the son Indrabodhi, the King of Udyana. His strict adherence to the Yogacara school made him famous in Tibet. Besides them, some pandits at Nalanda need honourable mention. Candrogomin( Pronounced as Chandragomin). He is one of the advocates of Tantrism. He had written over sixty books in Sanskrit. Simhanada Sadhana, Mahakaranika stotra, Abhichara Karman(Abhichara Karman) and Rakshachakra are his major works. Buddha Kirti and Viradeva were the last great scholars of Nalanda University. On the whole, these Pandits believed in the maxim: 'Honor where Honor is due.

Ritualism

Nalanda University, the Centre of Mahayana Buddhism, gives utmost importance to rituals. Unlike Hinayana, the furtherance of Madhyamikarika brings forth celestial gods and Bodhisattvas. They are to be worshipped by the students. They should propitiate the images of god. I-Tsing, the biographer of Hien-Tsiang gives us a piece of information as to ritualism at the University. He talks about Public rite which is performed by the residents in the presence of a priest. In the morning the mendicants should take a dip in the water after that the holy image was venerated by anointing with scent and offering flowers at the image. In the evening, they performed sandhyavandana, where they assembled before the lion-Throne(Simhasana), where the sutra- reciter reads the sutra in three parts they are Part 1, Part 2 and part 3. Part 1 comprises ten slokas of hymns in praise of three honourable ones. Part 2 is the selection from some scriptures consisting of the words of Lord Buddha and Part 3 is the chanting of more than ten slokas that express the wish to bring one's good merit to maturity. In the end, the priests exclaimed Subhashita! This is similar to the homely of Modern Christian rites.

Prof HD Sankalia has given a classification as to the images propitiated by the residents of Nalanda university. They are classified into three parts viz: Early Mahayana. Tantric Mahayana and Hindu Pantheon. The Bronze images of Buddha, Maitreya ( Future Buddha), Avalokitesvara, Bodhisattvas and Manjushree- The Buddhist god of wisdom and Samantabhadra are subsumed under Early Mahayana. While Hariti and Tara were goddesses of early Mahayana Buddhism. When it comes to Tantric Buddhism following Gods were worshipped: Dhyani Buddha. Trailokavijaya, Jambhala, Marici, Yamantaka and Vajrasarada. The Hindu pantheons were built by kings. They worshipped Lord Vishnu, Saraswati, Ganga, Lord Siva and Parvati. It is worth noting that these gods were represented by different moods and places in different postures. Sometimes they depict mudras as well. For instance, the right hand of the bronze figure of Buddha is raised in Abhayamudra, while Maitreya is depicted as a boon giver. Figures of animals, the staff which is held by Gods and so on were well depicted.

The Glory Withered Away.

The glory of this temple of knowledge lasted for a thousand years. The destruction of this magnificent University is reminiscent of the prophecy of the soothsayer a thousand years ago. The blood of the snake was spilt in the soil while building the Monastery by Sakraditya. There is a various reason for the downfall of the Nalanda University they can be classified in two: extraneous and Inherent. While there are Inherent factors that weakened Buddhism. Buddhism is not to be perceived as a religion, it is a path to Nirvana for he had to ward off worldly pleasure. It is geared towards Maxim: 'Sarvam Dukkham, Sarvam anityam, Sarvam anatmyam' which reflects the impermanence of the world. Gradually in the opening centuries of the Christian era(AD), Buddhism was revived. It was subjected to changes on material purpose. Buddhism, hitherto the age of Nagarjuna was not popular en masse as it emphasizes self-denial and undergoes extreme rather onerous processes to attain Buddhahood(Nirvana). To keep Buddhism from waning, Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva espoused the middle path. But, the people continues to be content, finally, Buddhism was too much seeped into rituals and turned to Tantric ceremonies, Idolatry worship which was far cry from a Puritan form of Buddhism. The Buddhist monks became wealthy and lived well hence it's lost their moral prestige. Going by extraneous causes, the University was subjected to attack twice. In the sixth century AD, Nalanda was attacked by Mihirakula, the leader of Huns. Later, the University has been revived and after many years, around 1206 AD, the Turkic military leader, Bhaktiyar Khilji, made inroads to Nalanda, mercilessly killed monks and turned the place into dust. The schism in Buddhism added severity to the fragility of the system. These factors had weakened the edifice of Buddhism. Hence the glory of Buddhism withered away so as the glory of Nalanda University. Nevertheless, it is the harbinger of ancient wisdom and primordial truth. Modern universities cannot hold a candle to the versatility of the Nalanda university